WikiPortallus: Ethnic groups in the Philippines.html

The various ethnic groups in the Philippines identify themselves based on one or several factors most popularly by parental lineage and language. The majority of the population is composed of ethno-linquistic groups whose languages are Malayo-Polynesian and who had converted to Christianity and the European-American ways of life. From north to south, the most numerous of these groups are the Ilocanos, the Pangasinan, the Kapampangans, the Tagalogs, the Bicolanos and the Visayan.

In Mindanao, there are several ethnic groups of similar ancestry, but converted to Islam. They are collectively called Moros. They have retained much of the Islamic way of life and living under the symbolic rules of sultanates. The Moro, along with other minority groups, still suffer discrimination in employment and media from the majority Christian groups.

The Negritos are a Melanesian people that were the first to settle the archipelago and numbering some 30,000. In various parts of the country especially the highlands of Luzon are Austronesian tribes such as the Igorots and Kalingas. Their ways of life remains free from western or Islamic influence. They are said to be the best basis for the study of pre-Hispanic culture.

Non-Austronesian groups also form part of the population. Those significant in number include descendants of Europeans, Americans, Arabs, Chinese, Japanese and lately Koreans. Mestizos refer to those of mixed Spanish and Austronesian ancestries but may also refer to those of pure Spanish ancestry that have lived in the islands since Spanish rule. Mestizos may also refer to other non-Austronesian mixes such as those of part American, German, British, Chinese, Japanese, or Arab ancestry.

There are also ethnic Chinese in various parts of the archipelago. A well known district is Binondo.

The Philippines is one of the most diverse countries in terms of ethnicity.¹^{dubious – discuss}

Ethnic identity

Ethnic identity in the Philippines, quite unlike neighboring Asian countries, is relatively fluid, informal and depends greatly on context. The most common mark of ethnic identity is language. For instance, a Kapampangan may identify himself as such by the fact that his mother tongue is the Kapampangan language. Many also identify themselves based on ancestry. For example, a woman who has Bicolano ancestry but has spent most of her life in Manila may identify herself as Bicolano, even if she doesn’t speak any of the Bikol languages. Others are lumped together to a certain grouping based on some shared characteristics. Tribal groups are commonly grouped together in spite of having very different customs and languages, and having had very little interaction with each other. Moros are similarly diverse and independent from each other, and they are many times grouped together due to a shared history, culture and religion. Similarly, lowland Christian Filipinos are many times lumped together due to their similar culture, despite having different languages or different ancestries.

Given that ethnolinguistic boundaries are gradually blurring due to migration and intermarriage, regional identity (i.e. the place where one was brought up and whose language one speaks) serves as another very common identifier. One may identify oneself, for example, as a Davaoeño, Negrense, Ilonggo, Zamboangueño, Metromanileño, etc. Unlike China or the United States, there are no official ethnicities or "nations" in the Philippines, and migration and intermarriages between people of different ethnicities have been common throughout the past centuries. This has made ethnic identities of Filipinos greatly dependent on context, aside from being relatively fluid. For instance, a person who has Ilocano ancestry but who has spent his whole life in Davao may be identified as an Ilocano when he is in Davao and a Davaoeño when he is in Manila. And a Cebuano of Chinese ancestry may identify himself either as Chinese Filipino due to his ancestry; or as a Visayan because his primary language is Cebuano, a Visayan language; or Cebuano, based on his mother tongue (Cebuano) and the land of his birth (Cebu). People who identify themselves with multiple ethnicities and/or regional affiliations is not uncommon, particularly in major cities and in areas where a lot of migration has taken place, like Metro Manila, Metro Cebu, and many parts of Mindanao. The term mestizo (of mixed-ancestry) is used most commonly to those with part-Caucasian ancestry, and occasionally to those with part-Chinese ancestry.

There are also a number of Filipinos who consider themselves of an ethnocultural origin distinct from that of the Philippines, and who tend to affiliate with either or both. Their "hyphenated" identities, as in the case of Chinese-Filipinos, apart from indicating ancestry, may connote a sense that they as individuals straddle two worlds—one experience is specific to their unique ethnic identity, while the other is that of broader Philippine society. These "hyphenated" Filipinos, many of whom have profound and immediate connections to their homelands, have often been accused and criticized of holding loyalties to other countries. However, they claim that critics miss important points. There are many "hyphenated" Filipinos who, while being unable to sacrifice half of who they are, do not define or desire to define themselves as such, but rather are defined as such by other people with different treatment. The result is that even if these Filipinos are, in the words of the Panatang Makabayan, "a true Filipino in thought, in word, [and] in deed," they still may end up having a different experience, and for that reason may develop shared understandings with others of their type, whether they want that or not. This in itself becomes, ironically, a reason for them to be interested in their "hyphenated" identity, as they learn how to cope with the unique experiences dealt them.

Population history

The first humans in the Philippines are the Tabon Man, who was postulated to have lived at 0-1 BC, and the Cagayan Man, who is in turn thought to live at about 250,000-500,000 BC. The archaeological evidences indicate similarities of the two aforementioned fossils to fossils found in China and Indonesia.

The next group that arrived are the nomadic Negritos, whose ancestors were similar to the ancestors of the Andamanese and occupied several scattered areas throughout the islands. Unlike the following groups, they arrived before the Last Ice Age ended and were able to use land bridges.

Current archaeological evidences subscribe to the "Mainland Theory" of Peter Bellwood, that the ancestors of Malays, Indonesians, and the Pacific Islanders first crossed the Taiwan Strait 4,000 years ago, during the Iron Age. These early voyagers are thought to be the Austronesians. They used balangays (boats) to cross the Bashi Channel to the Philippines. This is attested by the fact that in Taiwan and the Philippines, the peoples are subdivided into several small tribes, whereas in Malaysia and Indonesia, most peoples are homogenous or are divided into large tribes, indicating that Taiwan, then the Philippines, was the starting point for Austronesian migration, and that Malays and Indonesians, as well as the Pacific Islanders instead came from the Philippines, and not from Malaya or Sumatra.^{citation needed}

By the 14th century, the ethnic landscape in the country was already relatively fixed. The Austronesians gradually displaced the Negritos then occupied the plains, deltas, and the coastal areas.

Frequent trades with China and Japan in the north, and with the other Malays, Indians, Persians, and Arabs from the west and south also contributed to the ethnic and cultural make-up of the coastal areas. These included th adoption of Baybayin, Islam, as well as the concept of Karma.

With the Spanish colonization of the Philippines, two new groups of people were introduced to the archipelago. These are the Europeans and the American Indians. The Europeans settled in the plains around Manila and Cavite, and some of them intermarried with the natives. These gave rise to the Mestizos or peoples of mixed Austronesian and Spanish descent. Over time, Mestizo communities have also sprung up in various parts of the archipelago, particularly in Cebu, Iloilo, and Bacolod. The American Indians that were brought here, according to author Austin Craig, nearly numbered similar to the native population. Most of them are of Nahuatl (Aztec) or Yaqui descent, or are Mexican mestizos themselves. Many of them intermarried with the indigenous population, particularly in Luzon. By the opening of the Suez Canal in 1867, the Philippines was opened for foreign trade, and there are many Europeans, particularly Britons, Germans, and French, who have settled in the islands. By the end of Spanish rule, the loosely-bound ethnic groups of the islands began calling themselves Filipinos, a term that began with persons of pure Spanish descent born in the Philippines.

American colonization in 1898 brought in a new ethnic group, the Anglo-Americans, and the Philippines was held by most American authors as the westernmost outpost of American ethnic and territorial expansion. A plan formulated by the American government was to transfer all the African Americans in the Mainland United States to the Philippines, but this never materialized, due to the Philippine-American War. From 1898 until the present-day, a continuous trickle of American immigration to the Philippines, mostly White Americans, has resulted to the country’s having the largest American and Amerasian population outside of North America.

Presently, the Philippines has over 160 distinct indigenous ethnic groups, over half of which are unique linguistic groups, but aside from this, there has been a great deal of intermarriage between the indigenous population and the foreign colonizers and immigrants that it is nearly impossible to set the proportion constants between the various groups. Prehistoric movements of people throughout the region have resulted to the country’s having a large minority of Southern Chinese, Indians, and Arabs, while contemporary migrations have also led to a sizeable Spanish and American populations. More modern immigrations to the country have seen large numbers of Americans, Koreans, Japanese, and Indonesians settle in the islands, particularly during the 21st century. As of now, about 10% of all Filipinos have Southern Chinese ancestry, and 10% of the population is at least partly descended from the European and American colonizers and immigrants. Current increasing trends in immigration and interracial marriage with Caucasians, particularly Americans, as well as with East Asians, particularly Chinese and Japanese, are expected to result to a significant rise in the number of Filipino mestizos by the end of the first half of this century.

Indigenous ethnic groups

Bicolano

The Bicolanos originate from the southeastern tip of Luzon: Bicolandia or the Bicol region. There are several Bicolano languages, of which there is a total of 3.5 million speakers.²

Bicol played a major role in shipbuilding for the Manila-Acapulco trade.³^:3 However, possibly due to its being located in the typhoon belt,⁴^:8 Bicol remains one of the country’s most economically depressed areas, with the lowest income recorded among the regions,³^:8 despite its abundant mineral reserves, and its lumber, abaca and tourism industries.³^:7

The most popular religious icon of Bicol is the Nuestra Señora de Peñafrancia, Patroness of Bicol. This image of the Blessed Virgin Mary is endearingly addressed as "ina" (mother).³^:7

The Bicolanos number about 5,907,000.^{citation needed} They are descended from the Austronesian-speaking immigrants who came from South China during the Iron Age. Some Bicolanos also have Chinese, Arab, and Spanish admixtures. Their language is referred to as Bikol or Bicolano. The Bicolano language is very fragmented, and its dialects are mutually incomprehensible to speakers of other Bicolano dialects. The majority of the Bicolano people are devout Roman Catholics. Catholic Mass is celebrated daily in many churches in the Bicol Region.

Ibanag

The Ibanags are an ethnic minority numbering a little more than half a million people, who inhabit the provinces of Cagayan, Isabela and Nueva Vizcaya. They are one of the largest ethnic minorities in the Philippines.

Ilocano

Akin to the Ibanag peoples and Ivatans, the Ilocanos are the inhabitants of the lowlands and coastal areas of northern Luzon. Throughout the centuries of the Spanish colonial era up to the present, the Ilocano were noted for their tendency to migrate.⁵^:4 Today, there is Ilocano presence in central Luzon, Manila, and some towns in the Visayas and Mindanao. ⁵^:1 Many Filipino-Americans are of Ilocano descent. In Hawaii, they make up 85% of the Filipino-American population.⁶

There are more than 8 million speakers of the Ilocano language⁷, making it the third most widely spoken language in the Philippines. Most Ilocanos are Catholics; however, Ilocanos comprise the largest membership within the Philippine Independent Church.

Ivatan

Kapampangan

The Kapampangan or Capampañgan (English: Pampangan; Spanish: Pampangueño or Pampango) people originate from the central plains of Luzon, starting from Bataan up to Nueva Ecija. The Kapampangan language is spoken by more than two million people, and has been shown to be related to some Indonesian dialects.⁸ Most Kapampangans are Catholics.

In the Spanish colonial era, Pampanga was known to be a source of valiant soldiers. There was a Kapampangan contingent in the colonial army who helped defend Manila against the Chinese Pirate Limahon. They also helped in battles against the Dutch, the English and Muslim raiders.⁹^:3 Kapampangans, along with the Tagalogs, played a major role in the Philippine Revolution.¹⁰

The Kapampangans are known for their talent in cooking, especially those exotic but delicious foods. Kapampangans are also known to be friendly and happy people.

Moro

The Moros comprise of various ethnolinguistic groups in southern and western Mindanao who have a similar ancestry to other lowland Filipinos, but whose religion is Islam. The largest of these are the Tausug, the Maguindanao, the Maranao, the Samal, the Yakan, and the Banguingui. These ethnolinguistic groups are very diverse in terms of language and culture, and have been politically independent from each other up until recently.¹¹ Collectively, they are also called Moros. The word Moro in English means 'moor'. Hence, it has been used by other ethnic groups as a pejorative term. However, some Muslims have used the word moro and have taken pride in it, that they have applied the term Bangsamoro, meaning 'Moro nation', to their homeland. Muslim Filipinos have an independent justice and education system centrally based in Cotabato City. All in all, they comprise 5% of Filipinos,¹² making them the sixth largest ethnic group in the country.

Pangasinense

The Pangasinan are the ninth largest Filipino ethnic group. They originate from the northwestern seaboard of Luzon. Anthropologically speaking, the Pangasinan and dwellers of the Cordilleras are linguistically related. However, it has not yet been established whether the Cordilleranos descended from the Pangasinan or vice-versa.

The Pangasinan are one of the first peoples in the Philippines to have contacts with the Chinese through regular trade as well as the permanent settling of the Chinese, especially in the towns bordering Lingayen Gulf. [1]

Sambal

Tagalog

Tagalog territory stretches from the central plains of Luzon to the islands of Mindoro and Marinduque.¹³This article incorporates facts obtained from The Political Graveyard. The Tagalogs were initially animists. From the 14th to the 16th century, Islam had made inroads among the Tagalog ruling class.¹⁴ The Tagalogs were Christianized, as were most ethnic groups in the Philippines, during the Spanish colonial era between the sixteenth and nineteenth century.

The Tagalogs are the first settlers of Manila. In the late 16th century, Spain chose Manila as the capital of its Philippine colony.¹³^:3 From then onwards, it has been the political and economic center of the Philippines. Manila and the surrounding Tagalog areas played a leading role in the Philippine Revolution and the People Power Revolution. Throughout the centuries, there have been massive migrations by other ethnic groups to Manila, and many of them have intermarried with the Tagalog population.¹³^:1

The Tagalog language was chosen as the basis for a national language in 1937. Today, Filipino, a de facto standardized version of Tagalog, is taught nationwide, and is the language of national television, cinema and popular music.¹⁵ There are more than 15 million native speakers of Tagalog.¹⁶ However, around 70% of Filipinos can speak the national language.¹³^:1

Visayan

Visayans are a multilingual ethnic group^{citation needed} located in the Visayas and a large part of Mindanao. Visayan languages with the most number of native speakers are Cebuano, with 20 million;¹⁷ Ilonggo (or Hiligaynon), with 7 million;¹⁸ and Waray-Waray, with 2.5 million.¹⁹ There are some ethnolinguistic groups however that have languages which are classified as Visayan but do not refer to themselves as Visayan. For instance, the Muslim ethnolinguistic group Tausug only use Bisaya to refer to those who are Christian. Meanwhile, there are people who identify as Visaya (primarily those from Metro Manila¹³^:1 and the United States^{citation needed}) but do not speak Visayan languages.

Visayans were initially animists who were known for being traders and raiders.²⁰^:1 Magellan’s landing in the Visayas in 1521 marks the start of Christianization of the Visayas and the rest of the Philippines. This event is celebrated by the feast of the Sto. Niño, the most popular religious icon of the Visayas.

Major Visayan cities like Cebu , Bacolod and Iloilo played major political, economic and cultural roles during the Spanish colonial era.²⁰ Visayans were also involved in the Philippine Revolution,²⁰^:4 and in the modern Philippine Republic; so far, there has been three Presidents from the Visayas.

Tribal groups

There are 100 or so different sea-based or highland-based tribal groups in the Philippines. Among Filipinos, they are ones least influenced by western or Islamic cultures. While some tribal groups living in Luzon have been Americanized and Westernized--an example of which is the predominance of Protestantism in Cordillera Administrative Region—the tribal groups living in Mindoro and Palawan are still generally animistic, while many of those in Mindanao practice folk Islam.

Badjao

The Badjao of the Sulu Archipelago are sometimes described as the sea gypsies due to their semi-nomadic nature. Despite being Muslim, they are distinct from the Moro.

Igorot

Lumad

The Lumad of Mindanao includes several tribes such as the Manobo, the Tasaday, the Mamanwa, the Mandaya, and the Kalagan. They primarily inhabit eastern parts of Mindanao such as the Caraga and Davao Regions.

Mangyan

Negrito groups

Palawan tribes

The tribes of Palawan are a diverse group of tribes primarily located in the island of Palawan. The Tagbanwa is know for their script.

Non-indigenous ethnic groups

Chinese

There has been Chinese presence in the Philippines since the ninth century;²¹ although large scale migrations of Chinese to the Philippines only started during the Spanish colonial era, when the world market was opened to the Philippines.²²

Most Chinese Filipinos, or Tsinoys, are located in centers of commerce. They have been instrumental in the growth of small and medium-sized businesses and large corporations in the past centuries up to the present. Not surprisingly, the old center of trade and industry in Manila is Binondo, the biggest Chinatown in the Philippines. Many Filipinos with Chinese ancestry played major roles in the Philippine Revolution.²³

The Philippines has one of the most assimilated Chinese communities in Asia.²⁴ It is estimated that among Filipinos, 9% have some Chinese ancestry and 2% are "full-blooded" Chinese.

Spanish

There has been a Spanish presence in the Philippines since the early sixteenth century. The Spanish colonial era in the country (1565-1898) in the early stages of colonization were mostly government officials, soldiers and religious missionaries. Many of these came from Mexico, as the Philippines was, for many years, governed as its province. Later in the colonial era, Spanish entrepreneurs, most of whom where Basques, also arrived. There has been a significant Hispanic influence on Philippine religion and culture;²⁵ 85% of Filipinos are Catholics, and Philippine languages contain thousands of Spanish loanwords. Since Spanish was only taught to a small minority, the ilustrados, and migrations of Spanish speakers was small compared to that of Latin America, Spanish language speakers in the Philippines never went beyond 5% of the population.²⁶

According to a genetic study which included 28 genotyped individuals from the Philippines, "Some European introgression was also evident in Southeast Asia (2.3%–7.8%) and the Philippines (3.6%)."²⁷.^{p.434} A large part of this European introgression is very likely of Spanish origin. Filipinos with a mix of Spanish ancestry, Spanish mestizos, are particularly visible in show business, and some leaders in Philippine business and comerce are of Spanish descent.²⁸ Spanish and Spanish-speaking families are mostly found in areas that had agricultural importance during the Spanish colonial era, like Bacolod and Iloilo, and old centers of commerce, like Cebu and Manila. Today, the Spanish-Filipinos are estimated to be numbering around several hundreds of thousands of the Philippine population and constitute the seventh largest Filipino ethnic group.^{citation needed}

Despite being a minority, the Spanish maintains control over major industries in the Philippines, including banking, power and transportation.

American

American presence in the Philippines is contemporaneous and relatively high, owing to the half a century of colonization of the Philippines by the United States. The Philippines has the second largest population of American citizens outside of the United States^{citation needed}, many of whom have been naturalized. Many Filipinos of U.S. origin predominate in religious and educational sectors, as well as in several multinational businesses.^{citation needed} There are 110,000 Americans in Manila alone, excluding temporary embassy officials, military staff, and temporary residents.^{citation needed} The most important contribution of the United States to the Philippines include secular democracy, English as a second language, and the public school system. However, the U.S. nationals are also blamed for making the Philippines economically dependent to the United States, the effects of which are still felt by Filipinos of today.²⁹ A continuous trickle of Americans who opt to live in the country contribute to an increasing number of Amerasians in the country, particularly in Angeles City, Metro Manila and Metro Cebu.

Arab

Arabs have also contributed especially to Filipino Muslim society. Most Filipinos of Lebanese descent, however, are Christians and, like many Lebanese Christians, do not consider themselves Arabs.

Indian

Indian or South Asian presence in the Philippines has been ongoing since prehistoric times, predating even the coming of the Europeans by at least two centuries. Some people of Cainta, Rizal have some South Asian ancestry due to the British occupation of Manila during the Seven Years' War.

Indonesians

Some Indonesians came to Mindanao as early as the 1970s, settling down and married local women. However, the largest influx, consisting of fishermen and petty traders, began settling illegally in the early 1980s. They continue to maintain consciousness of their separate ethnic identity, as well as material links with Indonesia. Illegal entry and settlement is easy due to the Philippines' long coastline and insufficient personnel in the Border Crossing Office. More recently, many of the fishermen in fact have landing permits which allow them to move freely around the area where their boats are docked.

Registration, Residency and Deportation

As early as 1999, the Philippine government had been attempting to get Indonesians to register with the authorities, holding out the possibility that they might be granted citizenship as an incentive. However, a survey the next year, which counted 7,200 Indonesians living illegally in the area, found that few wanted to be naturalized in the Philippines, though they hoped to obtain permanent residency in order to regularize their living situation, while 30-35% hoped to be repatriated to Indonesia. That survey found the largest community of Indonesians in Sarangani province, with others in South Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat, Davao City, Davao del Norte, Davao Oriental, and North Cotabato. At that time, they planned to deport 1,738 of them. In 2002, the Philippine government, alarmed by the number of Indonesian nationals implicated in recent Jemaah Islamiyah bombings in the Philippines, drew up a plan to deport a further 12,000 Indonesians from Mindanao; however, the implementation of the plan stalled due to disagreements between the Philippine and Indonesian governments over who would pay for it. Indonesians in the Philippines are often stereotyped as terrorists as a result.

In 2003 and again in 2005, the Philippine government initiated another survey and registration drive; that one registered 2,448 Philippine-born Indonesians, including 247 in General Santos, 371 in Glan-Sarangani, 265 in Davao del Sur, 108 in Davao City, 339 in Kiamba, Tupi and Malapatan, another 253 in Sarangani Island, 341 in Isulan, Sultan Kudarat and Kidapawan, and an additional 154 in Sarangani and Davao del Sur. The Indonesian government is also attempting to convince them to register with the local Indonesian consulate and with the Philippine government, and offered to pay their registration fees for identity documents.

Japanese

The Japanese as well as the Okinawans, who have been present even before the Spanish in areas such as Paco³⁰ and Davao. Currently most are businessmen and many have intermarried with Filipinas.

Jewish

Jews have also been and still are present in the country, albeit in lesser numbers, and even had a temple in Manila,³¹ and currently a synagogue in Makati.³² Current estimates peg their number to be approximately 2000. Most of the Jews in the Philippines were refugese from Europe (particularly Germany, Holland, Belguim, Austria and elsewhere in Europe) trying to escape from Nazi Germany. Today most of the Jews coming to the Philppines are either from the United States, Israel or even the Jews from Iran.

Korean

Koreans are approximately numbered at 92,000.³³ They for the most part are temporary students and workers who train in the country and elderly people attracted by lower living expenses.^{citation needed} The Philippines is host to the largest South Korean community in Southeast Asia.^{citation needed}

Latin

Mexicans

Colonists from New Spain arrived in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial period. Between 1565 and 1815, many Mexicans, Spaniards, and Filipinos sailed to and from the Philippines and Mexico as sailors, crewmen, prisoners, slaves, adventurers, and soldiers in the Manila-Acapulco Galleon assisting Spain in its trade between Mexico and the Philippines.

Colombians

There are at least 2-3 thousand Colombians living in the Philippines mostly in Metro Manila and Cebu.

Venezuelans

Other

The most notable non-Spanish European groups in the Philippines are the British, Belgians, Dutch, and the Italians. Others include Germans, Polish, French, Scandinavians, Canadians and Brazilians. Most of them maintain cultural norms and practices distinct from the general population and have become recognizably independent in ethnic identity, worldview, social standing, and linguistic heritage. Many European expats in the Philippines have taken locals as their spouses and have settled down with families; some had migrated to the Philippines for that specific purpose. The majority of the European expatriates living in the Philippines are British, who number about 12,000. Dutch number about 16,576, Irish number about 10,000, Germans number about 961, and French about 900+. Most Brazillians are women models/entertainers trying to get into the Philippine entertainment industry. Unaccounted are Australians, New Zealanders, Belgians, Russians (including Ukranians and Belarusians), and other central Europeans, who are for the most part, either semi-permanent settlers, NGOs, or missionaries. Meanwhile, due to the ever-increasing number of inter-racial marriages, as well as sex tourism industry and rampant prostitution, the number of Eurasians are increasing. The Philippines has Asia's largest Eurasian population.

There are also at least 4,000 Canadians living in the Philippines but most of them are commonly mistaken as Americans.

Pakistanis

Russians

There are over 700+ Russians residing in the Philippines normally for work or education. Many of the Russians in the Philippines are either working as nurses, doctors or petrochemical companies in the Philippines.

Vietnamese

There are over 400+ migrants Vietnamese living, working and studying in the Philippines.[3] Most of the Vietnamese in the Philippines (other than the 400+ Vietnamese migrants) came to the Philippines as refugese during the Vietnam War. Most of the Vietnamese who settled in the Philippines have opened small sized Vietnamese communities in Palawan and Metro Manila.

Notes

^ The Philippines ranks 8th among 240 countries in terms of ethnic diversity. YEOH Kok Kheng, Towards an Index of Ethnic Fractionalization, Table 1.
^ "Bicolano, Central". Ethnologue: Languages of the world. Retrieved on 2007-07-10.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d CCP Encyclopedia or Philippine Art, Peoples of the Philippines, Bicolano
^ CCP Encyclopedia or Philippine Art, Peoples of the Philippines, Bicolano "Located in the typhoon belt which subjects the region to about 12 storms yearly, Bicol has had annual floods inundating 42,000 hectares of prime land for one month with an estimated damage of 20 million pesos."
^ ^a ^b CCP Encyclopedia or Philippine Art, Peoples of the Philippines, Ilocano
^ "The filipino Community in Hawaii". University of Hawaii, Center for Philippine studies. Retrieved on 2007-07-10.
^ "Ilocano". Ethnologue: Languages of the world. Retrieved on 2007-07-10.
^ "Pampangan". Ethnologue: Languages of the world. Retrieved on 2007-07-10.
^ CCP Encyclopedia or Philippine Art, Peoples of the Philippines, Kapampangan
^ Nick Joaquin, Culture and History: Occasional Notes on the Process of Philippine Becoming (Pasig: Anvil Publishing, 2004), 236.
^ Nick Joaquin, Culture and History: Occasional Notes on the Process of Philippine Becoming (Pasig: Anvil Publishing, 2004), 226.
^ "Muslim Filipinos". U.S. Library of congress: Country Studies. Retrieved on 2007-07-10.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e CCP Encyclopedia or Philippine Art, Peoples of the Philippines, Tagalog
^ see Joaquin, Nick: Manila, my Manila
^ Rubrico, Jessie Grace (1998): The Metamorphosis of Filipino as National Language
^ "Tagalog". Ethnologue: Languages of the world. Retrieved on 2007-07-10.
^ "Cebuano". Ethnologue: Languages of the world. Retrieved on 2007-07-10.
^ "Hiligaynon". Ethnologue: Languages of the world. Retrieved on 2007-07-10.
^ "Waray-Waray". Ethnologue: Languages of the world. Retrieved on 2007-07-10.
^ ^a ^b ^c CCP Encyclopedia or Philippine Art, Peoples of the Philippines, Cebuano
^ Teodoro A. Agoncillo, History of the Filipino People (Quezon City: Garotech Publishing, 1990), p. 24
^ Nick Joaquin, Culture and History: Occasional Notes on the Process of Philippine Becoming (Pasig: Anvil Publishing, 2004), 42.
^ Benedict Anderson, ‘Cacique Democracy in the Philippines: Origins and Dreams’, New Left Review, 169 (May-June 1988)
^ Gavin Sanson Bagares, Philippine Daily Inquirer, A16 (January 28, 2006)
^ See John Leddy Phelan's "The Hispanization of the Philippines"
^ Benedict Anderson, ‘Cacique Democracy in the Philippines: Origins and Dreams’, New Left Review, 169 (May-June 1988)
^ Cristian Capelli et al. (2001). "A Predominantly Indigenous Paternal Heritage for the Austronesian-Speaking Peoples of Insular Southeast Asia and Oceania". American Journal of Human Genetics 68: 432–443. doi:10.1086/318205, http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2001_v68_p432.pdf.
^ e.g., the Zobel de Ayalas of Manila and the Aboitizes of Cebu
^ Nick Joaquin, Culture and History: Occasional Notes on the Process of Philippine Becoming (Pasig: Anvil Publishing, 2004), 318.
^ City of Manila, Evolution of the City of Manila. accessed February 5, 2007.
^ Frank Ephraim, Escape to Manila: From Nazi Tyranny to Japanese Terror (ISBN 0-252-02845-7), Narrates the story of the newly arrived Jews in the Philippines; from their day of their arrival, their daily life in Manila, to their departure to other destinations a decade later.
^ Bet Ya‘aqov Synagogue
^ Smart launches text service in Korean, goodnewspilipinas.com, http://www.goodnewspilipinas.com/docs/tech_milestones/archived/smart_korean.html, retrieved on 2008-04-27

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