Muhammad and slavery.html



Bilal ibn Ribah (pictured, atop the Kaaba) an Ethiopian former slave, was appointed by Muhammad to perform as the first official muezzin. He had been emancipated through Abu Bakr paying his ransom upon Muhammad's instruction. As a Muslim, he accompanied Muhammad on the Hijra and was the bearer of Muhammad's mace and spear on the latter's military expeditions. In January 630, in a richly symbolic moment, he was the first ever Muslim to proclaim adhan in Mecca as depicted.

From a religious perspective, Muhammad is regarded by Muslims as the seal of the prophets ordained by God in Islam. Secularly, he may alternatively be regarded as a political figure who unified many of the tribes and city states of Arabia and as a reformer of social norms affecting pre-Islamic Arab culture, including its conception of slavery. Although not subjecting slavery to abolition, he was responsible for its reformulation to the extent of regulating and institutionalising it as one demonstration of Islamic culture acting as a liberalising influence.¹

On a personal level, available historical sources confirm the circumstances of his direction and serial ownership of numerous slaves including slave concubines – amounting to at least 34 males and some 16 females – commencing in his infancy with the death of his father and continuing uninterrupted until his own death more than six decades later.²

His slaves and slave associates (including former slaves) came from a diversity of African and Middle Eastern origins. Amongst them are those whom he inherited or qualified to own as offspring of his existing slaves, those he accepted as gifts, those that he purchased and/or sold, some of whom he personally manumitted or otherwise assisted to emancipate, those who were captured and later exploited as unfree labour – often in his military campaigns, and even some of his wives and other members of his household. There are also certain occasions when he trafficked female slaves to others as gifts. ³

In its early days his revealed religion possessed a particular appeal to slaves and former slaves for its relatively egalitarian underpinnings and benefited at certain points from expressions of slave discontent. As his power extended and his influence heightened, however, he himself moved more from being a friend and liberator of slaves to being a master of them.⁴

His attitudes and pronouncements regarding the subject of slavery reveal abiding belief in the principle of a slave's loyalty to her or his master, and in a master's duty of reciprocation. By his fiat a master could sell and may trade her or his slaves, was not required to free or repatriate those no longer wanted, and was empowered to deem which were worthy to be granted a mukataba while holding authorisation to deny property and earnings to those not so deemed. Female slaves were not permitted to withhold their fertility from a master even through married to another at the time of their enslavement, they had no ownership of their mahr, they could not marry without their master's consent, and they might (in the interpretation of Shi'a jurisprudence) even be compelled to sexually serve a third party.^567891011

He restricted the traditional means of enslavement, he established a principle that slaves may have authority over free men in Islamic government and religious and military affairs, he urged compassion and moderation as the general rule for their treatment, he enforced emancipation as the necessary atonement for having assaulted one's slave without just cause, and he deemed manumission as either meritorious or as a means or requirement for muslims to earn forgiveness for serious transgressions.¹²¹³¹⁴

Slavery in Islam

Main articles: Islam and slavery, Ma malakat aymanukum, and Ma malakat aymanukum and sex

The major juristic schools of Islam have historically accepted the institution of slavery.¹⁵ Muhammad and those of his companions who could afford it themselves owned slaves, some of which they emancipated, and others of which they additionally acquired from amongst captured prisoners of war. Arabian slaves are posited to have benefited from the Islamic reformulation, through "reforms of a humanitarian tendency both at the time of Muhammad and the later early caliphs".¹⁵

In Islamic law, the topic of slavery is covered at great length. Islamic fiqh brought major changes considered to have been of far-reaching effect to the practice of it inherited from antiquity, from Rome, and from Byzantium.¹⁵

The Qur'an propounds manumission to be a meritorious deed either prescribed or allowed as a condition of repentance for certain grave sins and shortcomings. Fiqh treats slavery as an exceptional circumstance, applying a rebuttable presumption of freeborn status to those of doubtful or unclear origins. Moreover, as opposed to pre-Islamic slavery, it permits the origination of enslavement in only two classes or circumstances: capture in war, or birth to parents who are themselves both already enslaved.¹⁶ Also, the innovation of the mukataba availed slaves deemed worthy ^{Qur'an 24:33} an opportunity to purchase or earn their own eventual emancipation, and Islamic elevation of the status of an umm walad (a female slave who had born a child acknowledged by her master as his offspring) restricting some of the possibilities for such a woman to be enslaved to an alternative master while the child remained alive.¹⁶¹⁷

His slave associates

Shortly after his birth he was suckled by Thueiba, a slave of his uncle Abu Lahab, for a few days. He and Khadija retained a warm relationship with her, regularly offering her gifts until the occurrence of her death in 7 AH.¹⁸ Khadijah's boy slave Maisara is known to have accompanied Muhammad on his journeys with her caravans in the period prior to the latter's marriage to her.¹⁹²⁰

The Ethiopian Abu Bakra (full name Nufay ibn Haris al Masruh), is an example of a fugitive slave who sought refuge amongst the Muslims, fought for them as a traitor besieging his community at Ta'if, himself became Muslim, and was refused to be returned to that community or to any condition of enslavement by Muhammad. Nine other slaves of the besieged garrison at Taif also availed themselves of Muhammad's offer to be freed as a reward for defection.²¹ As a free man he closely observed the sunnah of Muhammad in the role of one of his more trusted associates. He died in Basra in the year 51 or 52 AH (670–672 CE) and was the father of some 20 children.²²

Muhammad financially assisted Salman the Persian to redeem his own slave money.²³ Salman's closeness to Muhammad is signified by the latter's description of him as "a member of my household". After converting to Islam he became notable for devising the successful military tactics employed by the Muslims in the Battle of the Trench and for pursuing the strategy of employing a catapult at the unsuccessful Siege of Ta'if. He died in 33, 36, or 37 AH (654–659 CE).²⁴

His slaves

According to Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya, Muhammad "had many male and female slaves. He used to buy and sell them, but he purchased more than he sold, especially after God empowered him by His message, as well as after his immigration from Mecca. He once sold one black slave for two. His name was Jacob al-Mudbir. His purchases of slaves were more. He was used to renting out and hiring many slaves, but he hired more slaves than he rented out".²⁵ The names and basic biographical details of some notable among those slaves are disclosed in early Islamic literature. Many additionally are themselves historical sources cited as narrators of hadith.²⁶

Males

Close associates

The affection of Muhammad for Zayd ibn Haritha is reviewed in William Muir's The Life of Mahomet (1861) (frontispiece pictured, bearing engraved depiction of Muhammad): "(Zayd) was so strongly attached by the kindness of Mahomet, who adopted him, that he preferred to remain at Mecca rather than return to his home with his own father: "I will not leave thee;' said he, clinging to his patron "for thou hast been a father and a mother to me.""²⁷ Muir's work also relates the story of Muhammad's relations with Maria al-Qibtiyya and the humiliation and envy that it reflected upon the existing women of his harem.²⁸

The Arabian Peninsula and surroundings showing places of interest and inhabitation regions of Arabian tribes that interacted with Muhammad. Note Persia top right, Yemen at the southern corner of the peninsula, Ethiopia slightly inland on the African side of the Bab-el-Mandeb, and Nubia being the region of modern-day Upper Egypt and Sudan. Syria is further to the north beyond the region of the Banu Kalb.

Travels and conquests (shown in darker green) of the Muslim armies during the lifetime of Muhammad.

Zayd ibn Haritha from Yemen, also known as Abu Usama al Kalbi, was given by Khadijah to Muhammad, who in turn declared him free and adopted him. When adoption was forbidden by Islam, Muhammad became his guardian.²⁹ He was appointed by Muhammad as the first commander in the Battle of Mu'tah³⁰ He was often appointed by Muhammad as a commander of expeditions and he participated in all the battles engaged in by the Muslim Army from the Battle of Badr until his death at Mu'tah.³¹

Usama ibn Zayd, the son of Zayd ibn Haritha and Umm Ayman, was raised under the auspices of Muhammad who is known to have said that among the children he was the one whom he loved most, with the exception of his own daughter, Fatimah. At the age of 18, he was appointed by Muhammad as the commander of the army in Syria. He died in 54, 58 or 59 AH (mid-to-late 670s CE).³²

Employed slaves

Aslam, also known as Abu Rafi al Qibti ("the gypsy") was gifted to Muhammad by the latter's uncle Abbas and eventually set free. A participant in the Battle of Uhud, the Battle of the Trench, and the Battle of Khaybar. He worked as a carpenter.³⁰³³

Safeenah ibn Farookh, whose real name was Mihraan, is reported to have been named thus ("Anta safeenah (You are a ship)") by Muhammad because he and his companions used to make him carry heavy amounts of their luggage when they traveled. He was bought by Umm Salamah, and freed only on the condition that he serve Muhammad as long as he lived. He died around the year 79 AH (698 – 699 CE).³⁰³⁴

Shaqraan (Shukran), whose real name was Salih ibn Adiyy or Mus'ab.³⁰ was from Ethiopia and gifted as a slave to Muhammad, who eventually freed him subsequent to the Battle of Badr.³⁵

Mid’am, a Nubian black slave was presented to Muhammad by Rifaa ibn Zayd and killed as result of sustaining an arrow wound while unsaddling a camel of Muhammad's at the Battle of Khaybar.³⁶³⁷³⁰ Kirkirah, another Nubian, was also killed at Khaybar.³⁰

Anjashah al-Haadi was a black slave noted as accompanying Muhammad on a journey and who Anas described as being reproached by him for driving camels too fast while women were mounted upon them.³⁰³⁸

Shamghun (Sham'un) ibn Zayd, better known as Abu Rahhana, was a guard slave of his who was for some time a border guard at Ashkelon. He participated in the conquest of Syria, and eventually settled there.³⁹

Abu Ubayd, was employed as a cook. He was eventually freed³⁰⁴⁰ just as was Abu Sallam, Muhammad's employed servant.⁴¹

Two Sahih Bukhari (hadith attributed to narration by Anas describe Muhammad's unnamed male "slave tailor" interrupting work to offer the latter a dish of gourd which Muhammad then ate.⁴²

Military veterans and victims of hostilities

Abu Muwayhabah was both purchased and set free by Muhammad. He was a member of the first Islamic school (the Ahl al Suffa, or "People of the Verandah") and a participant in the battle at al-Muraysi against the Banu Mustaliq in 628 where he was entrusted to escort the camel of Aisha.³⁰⁴³ Otherwise Ayman, a son of Umm Ayman (see below) was killed at the Battle of Hunayn.⁴⁴ and Yassaar, a Nubian, is another of his slaves reported as having been killed by the Arniyeen³⁰ on another occasion.

Other

• Abu Asib, also known as Ahmar. He resided in the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Grand Mosque at Medina), was known for his careful observance of sunnah, and was also a member of the Ahl al Suffa.⁴⁵
• Thawbaan ibn Bujdud, of Yemeni origin.³⁰⁴⁶ After Muhammad's death he moved to Hims in the region of Syria.⁴⁷
• Abu Yasar Zayd bin Bula, a Negro⁴⁸ who was captured in the Battle of Bani Salaba as an item of looted war spoils appropriated by Muhammad, who then set him free.⁴⁹
• Jacob al-Mudbir, a black slave sold for two others.²⁵
• Nafi. Emancipated by Muhammad.⁵⁰
• Rabaah, a Nubian.³⁰ He attended ⁵¹
• Fudaalah, a Yemeni.³⁰
• Maaboor, a eunuch.³⁰
• Anasah, whose kunyah was Abu Mashrah.³⁰
• Tahmaan, also known as Keesaan.³⁰
• Marwaan, possibly yet another name of Tahmaan.³⁰
• Mihraan, alternatively known as Maymun.³⁰⁵²
• Waaqid³⁰ and his son Abu Waaqid.³⁰
• 'Ubayd, literally "little servant".³⁰
• Abu Kabshah Sulaym³⁰
• Aflah³⁰
• Dhakwaan³⁰
• Hunayn³⁰
• Sandar³⁰
• Qassaam³⁰
• Abu ‘Usayb³⁰

Females

Wives and concubines

Safiyya bint Huyayy⁵³, according to Islamic account, adopted Islam and became a wife of Muhammad. She lived more than a decade after him as a widow and became involved in the first power politics of the early Muslim community and left a large inheritance to her Jewish family.

Maria al-Qibtiyya, a Coptic slave given as a concubine to Muhammad by Muqawqis, the Byzantine ruler of Egypt and Alexandria, in the year 7 AH (about 629CE). She gave birth to Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ⁵³ whom Muhammad loved dearly. Some sources indicate that she was freed and became Muhammad's wife, while other sources dispute this.⁵⁴³⁰. Sirin (Shirin), the sister of Maria, was also given to Muhammad by Muqawqis. Muhammad saw fit to marry her to the poet Hassan ibn Thabit to whom she bore a son named Abdurrahman.⁵⁵

Salma (Umm Raafi’)³⁰ was a concubine whom he later emancipated. She acted as a midwife within the household of Muhammad. She participated in the Battle of Khaybar as a nurse and cook for the Muslims. As mentioned above, she married Abu Rafi'.³³ Maymoonah bint Sa’d, a servant, also said to have been a concubine and eventually set free.⁵⁶ Umm al Rabab, or Mariya, was another concubine⁵⁷⁵⁸ and Maymuna bint Abu Asib ³⁰ was also was freed by him some time after his enjoying her as yet another one of his concubines.³⁰⁵⁹

Others

• Umm Ayman, also known as Baraka⁶⁰, was a black Ethiopian whose real name was Baraka bint Sa'laba. She, along with five camels and a herd of sheep, was part of the livestock inheritance that Muhammad received from his father.⁶¹ She raised him and he addressed her as "mother" and referred to her as his "second mother". She participated in the Battle of Uhud as a water carrier, and in the Battle of Khaybar as a nurse and a cook. Upon marrying Khadijah, he freed her⁶¹ and he also arranged her marriage to Zayd.³⁰
• Rayhana bint Zayd. Captured after siege of Banu Quraiza. ⁵³³⁰
• Unnamed. In December 627 the daughter of Omm Kirfa, a woman murdered by Zaid ibn Haritha and his associates in reprisal for her own association with those who had plundered Zaid's caravan near Wadi Al Cora, was presented as a slave to Muhammad who in turn presented her to one of his followers.⁶²
• Umm Ayyash. Known as one who assisted Muhammad to make wudhu. Emancipated.⁶³
• Maymoonah bint Abi ‘Usayb.³⁰
• Khadrah³⁰
• Radwa³⁰
• Razeenah³⁰
• Umm Dameerah³⁰

Themes in his dealings with slaves and his approach to slavery

Shortly after he began preaching Islam in his initial period in Mecca, several slaves allied themselves to him. Of them, Yasar and a Christian named are mentioned as being accused by the Quraysh of influencing him to foment political and relgious tumult in the city.⁶⁴ In the same period a freed slave named Ammar and his family are recorded as being among the very earliest converts to Islam.⁶⁵ While Muhammad remained building his religious community in their city, Quraysh rulers especially targeted converted slave Muslims among those that they persecuted with imprisonment and physical torments⁶⁶; see Yasir ibn Amir, Bilal ibn Ribah, Khabbab ibn al-Aratt, Abu Fakih, Abu Fuhayra, and Ammar ibn Yasir. Writing about that period, Muir has described that "the slaves of Mecca were peculiarly accessible to the solicitations of [Muhammad]. As foreigners they were generally familiar either with Judaism or Christianity. Isolated from the influences of hostile partisanship, persecution alienated them from the Quraysh, and misfortune made their hearts susceptible of spiritual impressions".⁶⁷

The seal "Muhammad, messenger of Allah", used on Muhammad's outgoing letters and applied to treaties with outsiders that he ratified on behalf of the Ummah.

Once he gained the sponsorship of the clans of Medina and he began to accumulate political power through conquest and military and diplomatic successes his name became more often associated with instances of enslavement. Thus it is found that he voiced his approval of the enslavement of the captured women and children of the Bani Qurayza who had come under his authority after the military defeat of their menfolk.⁶⁸ He expressed no qualms, either, about receiving slaves as gifts or seizing them as plunder and either holding them to the service of himself or distributing them as trophies amongst his followers. Behaving so, he presented three beautiful women from amongst imprisoned members of the conquered Banu Hawazin as slaves to his key supportive close marital relatives in early 630: Reeta, to Ali; Zeinab, to Uthman; and an unnamed third to Umar.⁶⁹; and several months later, the terms of Muhammad's treaty with the Jews of Mucna Adzruh and Jarba asserts his consequent personal ownership of "every slave amongst you ... excepting what the Apostle or his messenger shall remit".⁷⁰

In his personal example he did not emancipate all of his own slaves where he had the opportunity to do so during his lifetime, as the account of his final days and death mention the continuing attendance of his slaves as his servants beyond the time of his acknowledgment of the terminal character of his last illness.⁷¹ With his last instructions he addressed a number of subjects and took care to apportion his remaining gold but he did not emancipate or otherwise dispose of his remaining slaves who thus succeeded by inheritance to Fatimah.⁷²

His attitudes and pronouncements regarding slavery

The circumstances where Muhammad reproved the beating of a slave who had transgressed against his or her master were those where the beating itself nullified the benefit to the master of the slave's punished independent charitable deed⁷³ or otherwise because it created the circumstances of a blasphemy⁷⁴, not because of inherent abhorrence of aggression per se or of its effect upon the recipient. He condemned unjustified cruelty toward slaves even to the extent that for a master to slap her or his slave without just cause could only be atoned by freeing the slave.⁷⁵ However, to his view the permission to beat a slave, still was broader thanthe analogous permission afforded to men with respect to free women under their authority.⁷⁶ Generally he exhorted muslim believers to treat slaves with equanimity⁷⁷, and he commended the spirit of the act of manumission by a master⁷⁵ equally to the degree that he damned the initiative of slave who might take their own freedom.⁷⁸ To his very end he affirmed divine sanction for the authority of masters over slaves⁷⁹ and he urged obedience to authorities - be they even peculiar foreign slaves - exercising Islamic rule.⁸⁰⁸¹

Discipline by force

Wrongfulness of self-emancipation

Obedience to Islamic government

Spiritual significance of manumission

Final admonition

Some reports of his Farewell Sermon incorporate the admonition:

See also

• Arab slave trade in the Islamic world
• Criticism of Islam
• Criticism of Muhammad
• Slavery and religion

External links

• Al-Bukhari Hadith Search: Manumission of Slaves
• BBC Religion and Ethics - Muhammad and Slavery
• University of Southern California Hadith Database Search Portal incorporating Sahih Bukhari, Sahih Muslim, Sunan Abu-Dawud (partial), and Malik's Muwatta
• University of Southern California Qur'an Database Search Portal - employable for searches, eg. 'slave', 'hand and possess', 'maid and servant'

Notes

1. ^ See sources cited under "Slavery in Islam" section 'Islam and slavery' main article
2. ^ al-Jawziyya, Muir, Aydin, Al-Tabari
3. ^ Muir; Vol.4, Ch.25, pp.149–150 and also Wackidi re his disposal of the daughter Omm Kirfa.
4. ^ See Muir and al-Wackidi, and other sources reported under the section titled "themes in his dealings with slaves and his approach to slavery"
5. ^ Surah - Al - Muminoon
6. ^ "Abd". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Ed. P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.
7. ^ http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/008.smt.html#008.3432 Sahih Muslim, Chapter 29, Book 008, Number 3432 titled "It is permissible to have sexual intercourse with a captive woman after she is purified (of menses or delivery) in case she has a husband, her marriage is abrogated after she becomes captive"
8. ^ Lovejoy, Paul E. (2000). Transformations in Slavery. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78430-1. , p.2
9. ^ Qur'an 4:25
10. ^ Javed Ahmad Ghamidi. Mizan, The Social Law of Islam, Al-Mawrid
11. ^ Javed Ahmad Ghamidi, Mizan, The Penal Law of Islam, Al-Mawrid
12. ^ Lewis, Sahih Muslim, Sahih Bukhari
13. ^ Wolfe, p.130
14. ^ http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/abudawud/040.sat.html#040.4590 Sunan Abu-Dawud, Book 40, Number 4590
15. ^ ^{a b c} Lewis, Bernard (August 1990). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press. pp. Chapter 1. ISBN 978-0195062830, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/lewis1.html. 
16. ^ ^{a b} "Abd" (Brunschvig, 1960). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Ed. P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912. [[]]
17. ^ Paul Lovejoy (2000), Transformations in Slavery. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78430-1, p.2
18. ^ Muir; Vol.2, Ch.1, p.18
19. ^ Life of Prophet Muhammad - Glossary, http://www.islamic-message.net/English/Books/lopm/glossary.htm, retrieved on 29 July 2008 
20. ^ Muir; Vol.2, Ch.2, p.17
21. ^ Muir; Vol.4, Ch.25, p.125
22. ^ Ayman, p.2
23. ^ Al Kalabazi, Rijal Sahih al Bukhari, I, p. 326; Dhahabî, Kashif, I, p. 451; Ibn al Asir, Usd al Ghabe, II, p. 265; Ibn Hajar, al Isaba, III, p. 118 (all cited in Aydin, p.15).
24. ^ Aydin, p.15
25. ^ ^{a b} Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya; Jalal Abualrub (English translator); Alsa Mencke and Shaheed M. Ali (Editors) (2003 (2nd Edition)). Zad-ul Ma'ad fi Hadyi Khairi-l 'Ibad (Provisions for the Hereafter), part 1, Islamic Learning Media Publications. pp. 160. ISBN 0-9703766-0-X, http://www.fustat.com/souq.shtml. 
26. ^ (According to Aydin) Abu Asib, Abu Bakra, Abu Muwayhiba, Abu Rafi, Abu Sallam, Abu Ubayd, Ayman, Mariya, Maymuna bint Abu Asib, Maymuna bint Sa'd, Mihran, Nafi, Safina, Salman, Thawban, Sirin, Salma, Shamghun, Shukran, Umm Ayyash, Usama, Zayd, and Zayd ibn Harisa
27. ^ Muir, Vol. 4, Ch. 7, p.306
28. ^ Muir, Vol.4, Ch.26, pp.157-163
29. ^ Question and Answer re the Adoption of Zaid by Muhammad
30. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am} Zad al-Ma'ad, Part 1, pp.114–116 as cited in Abdul-Rahman, Muhammad Saed (2004). Jurisprudence and Islamic Rulings: Transactions - Part 5. London, U.K.: MSA Publication Limited. pp. 243-244. ISBN 1 86179 451 7, http://books.google.com.au/books?id=r2Wde6qkCVQC. 
31. ^ http://www.lastprophet.info/en/content/view/111/14/1/24/ Aydin, p.24
32. ^ Aydin, p.22
33. ^ ^{a b} http://www.lastprophet.info/en/content/view/111/14/1/4/ Aydin, p.4
34. ^ Aydin, p.13
35. ^ Aydin, p.19
36. ^ http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muwatta/021.mmt.html#021.21.13.25 Malik's Muwatta, Book 21, Number 21.13.25
37. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=SWPQfmdf5J4C&pg=PA118&lpg=PA118&dq=slave+midam&source=web&ots=COS-tJCk0h&sig=fIGenM6iX9AiWZuqTFac7lFsRsU&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result The History of al-Tabari (translated and annotated by Ismail K. Poonawala), Volume 9, "The Last Years of the Prophet", p.118
38. ^ http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/073.sbt.html#008.073.182 Sahih Bukhari: Volume 8, Book 73, Number 182
39. ^ Aydin, p.18
40. ^ Aydin, p.6
41. ^ Aydin, p.5
42. ^ Translation of Sahih Bukhari, Volume 7, Book 65, #344 and #346, http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/065.sbt.html, retrieved on 29 July 2008 
43. ^ Aydin, p.3
44. ^ Aydin, p.7
45. ^ Aydin, p.1
46. ^ Ayman, p.16
47. ^ Al-Tabari, pp.99-100
48. ^ Al-Tabari, p.100, citing Hajar, Isabah, I, 561
49. ^ Aydin, p.23
50. ^ Ayman, p.12
51. ^ Sahih Muslim Book 019, Number 4450
52. ^ Aydin, p.11
53. ^ ^{a b c} Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya recorded the list of some names of Muhammad's female slaves in Zad al-Ma'ad, Volume 1, p. 116
54. ^ See "Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir"(The Book of the Major Classes) by Ibn Sa'd
55. ^ Aydin, p.17 (citing Ibn Abdilberr, İstîâb, IV, p. 1868; Nawavî, Tahzib al Asma, I, p. 162; Ibn al Asîr, Usd al Ghâbe, VI, p. 160)
56. ^ Aydin, p.10
57. ^ Ibn al Asir (author), Usd al Ghabe (work), VI (chapter or volume), p.261
58. ^ Aydin, p.8
59. ^ Aydin, p.9
60. ^ Muir; Vol.2, Ch.1, p.11
61. ^ ^{a b} Aydin, p.21
62. ^ Muir; Vol.4, Ch.18, p.13 [citing Katib al Wackidi ie. "The first volume of the (larger history of Mahomet and the several classes of his Companions)", composed by the Imam and Hafiz, Abu Muhammad ibn Saad, the Secretary of Wackidi. 'Wackidi' refers to Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Omar al Wackidi (120 (or 130) AH - 207 AH)]
63. ^ Aydin, p.20
64. ^ Muir; Vol.2, Ch.4, p.122
65. ^ Muir; Vol.2, Ch.4, p.125
66. ^ Muir; Vol.2, Ch.4, p.129
67. ^ Muir; Vol.2, Ch.4, p.108
68. ^ Muir; Vol.3, Ch.17, p.276 (citing Hishami, 436)
69. ^ Muir; Vol.4, Ch.25, pp.149–150
70. ^ Muir; Vol.4, Ch.28, p.190 (citing K. Wackidi 53.5)
71. ^ Muir; Vol.4, pp.258&274
72. ^ Muir; Vol.4, Ch.33, pp.270–273
73. ^ ^{a b} Sahih Muslim, Book 5 (The Book of Charity), Number 2237
74. ^ ^{a b} http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/015.smt.html
    1. 015.4089 Sahih Muslim, Book 15 (The Book of Oaths), Number 4089

• ^ ^{a b c} http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/015.smt.html#015.4079 Sahih Muslim Book 15 (The Book of Oaths), Number 4079
• ^ ^{a b} Sahih Bukhari Volume 8, Book 73, Number 68
• ^ ^{a b} Muir, Vol.4, Ch.31
• ^ ^{a b} al-Jami al-Sahih # 3047]
• ^ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named sell
• ^ ^{a b} [ http://books.google.com/books?id=jo2BmTUZB3oC&pg=PA130&lpg=PA130&dq=yield+obedience+to+my+successor,+although+he+may+be+a+black+slave&source=web&ots=0P6n-4VRs5&sig=EmSs7g5iLLt2f_bkXRIFbwTXFeY&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result Taking Back Islam: American Muslims Reclaim Their Faith; By Michael Wolfe, p.130. Published by Rodale, 2004 ISBN 1579549888, 9781579549886]
• ^ ^{a b} Sunan Abu-Dawud, Book 40, Number 4590
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References

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• Higgins, Godfrey & Abu'l-Fazl, Mirza (Contributor). "An Apology for the Life and Character of the Celebrated Prophet of Arabia Called Mohamed or the Illustrious" (1829). Kessinger Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0766176835, 9780766176836
• Lane-Poole, Stanley. "The Speeches and Table-Talk of the Prophet Mohammad". Macmillan and Co., London, 1882.
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• Muir, William. "The Life of Mahomet" (1, 2, 3,

4). Smith, Elder, & Co., London, 1861.

• Schacht, Joseph. "An Introduction to Islamic Law". Clarendon Paperbacks, 1982. ISBN 0-19-825473