Ottoman military reform efforts.html

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When Selim III came to the throne in 1789, an ambitious effort of military reform was launched, geared towards securing the Ottoman Empire. The sultan and those who surrounded him were conservative and desired to preserve the status quo. No one in power in the Empire had any interest in social transformation.

Western military advisors were imported but their abilities to enact change were limited. A parade of French officers were brought in, and none of them could do a great deal. One example of an advisor who achieved limited success was the François Baron de Tott, a French officer. He did succeed in having a new foundry built to make artillery. As well he directed the construction of a new naval base. Unfortunately it was almost impossible for him to divert soldiers from the regular army into the new units. The new ships and guns that made it into service were too few to have much of an influence on the Ottoman army and de Tott returned home.

When they had requested French help, a young artillery officer by the name of Napoleon Bonaparte was to be sent to Istanbul. He did not go, for just days before he was to embark for the Near East he proved himself useful to the Directory by putting down a Parisian mob in the Whiff of Grape-Shot and was kept in France.

1 The Janissaries
2 The Nizamis
3 Organization
4 Police Force
5 Footnote
6 See also

The Janissaries

The most important change was the creation of an elite new infantry unit; the nizam-i jedid was set up with western uniforms, weapons, and training. This group would offend the Janissaries. Once elite forces, the Janissaries had become a conservative elite using their military power to advance themselves commercially and politically.

In 1806 the Janissaries, with support of the ulema and the provincial governors revolted against the Sultan and his new force and replaced him with Mustafa IV. In 1808 he was replaced by Mahmud II-with martial law of Alemdar Mustafa Pasha who restarted the reform efforts. His first actions was to ally with the Janissaries to break the power of the provincial governors. He then turned on the Janissaries, massacring them in their barracks in Istanbul and the provincial capitals in 1826.

Main article: Russo-Turkish Wars

The Sultan now set himself to replace the Janissaries by other regular troops. The Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829 did not give him time to organize a new army, and the Sultan was forced to fight with these young and undisciplined recruits against the veterans of the Tsar. The war was brought to a close by the disastrous Treaty of Adrianople. While, the reforms in question were mainly implemented to improve the military, the most notable devlopment that arose out of these efforts was a series of schools teaching everything from math to medicine to train new officers.

The Nizamis

Sultan, Abdul Medjid enjoyed several years of peace, which have enabled him to form a powerful and well disciplined army, which was established at the beginning of the year 1842.

Organization

Land forces were divided into six separate armies (tr:Ordu). Each of these armies consisted of two services, the Active (tr:Nizamia), and the Reserve, (tr:Riyadiks). The former contained two corps, under the command of their respective lieutenant-generals (tr: ) and the latter, also two corps, was commanded in time of peace by a brigadier (tr:Liva). The overall command of the Ordu was held by a field-marshal (tr:Mushir).

The chain-of-command in the general staff of each army was composed of a commander-in-chief, two lieutenant-generals, three brigadiers of infantry, one of whom commands the reserve, two brigadiers of cavalry, and one brigadier of artillery. In each corps there were three regiments of infantry, two of cavalry, and one of artillery, with thirty-three guns. The total strength of these twelve regiments of of active forces was 30,000 men, but it was diminished in time of peace by furlough to an effective strength of about 25,000 men in three of the six armies, as well as 15,000 troops in the other three, a consequence of the recruiting system being as yet incomplete in its application all over the Ottoman Empire. The whole establishment of this branch amounts, therefore, to 180,000 men, belonging to the active service, but its effective strength is at present 123,000.

The reserve of four of the six armies consisted of eleven regiments, six of which were infantry, four of cavalry, and one of artillery. The total combined force equalled 12,000 troops, while the other two armies have not met their reserve of soldiers who have served five years. In time of war, however, the reserve would form two corps of 25,000 men in each army; giving a total of 300,000. The two services, therefore, as they stood, formed an effective force of 835,000 men; and when their full strength shall have been filled up it will amount to 480,000.

Besides these six armies there were four detached corps. These corps raise the effective strength of the standing army to 365,000 men.

Deployment at the time consisted of the following:

the Island of Crete was assigned three regiments of infantry and one of cavalry, in all 11,000 men;
the Pashalik of Tripoli in Africa was assigned one regiment of infantry and one of cavalry, about 5,000 strong;
the Pashalik of Tunis was assigned one regiment of infantry and one of cavalry, about 5,000 strong.

Aside from deployed troops, the ottoman military also had the following units:

- the central artillery corps,
- a standing brigade of sappers and miners with engineer officers,
- the veteran artillery brigade,
- permanent artillery garrisons of the fortresses on the
  - The Hellespont,
  - The Bosphorus,
  - The Danube, in Serbia, on the Adriatic,
  - The coast of Asia Minor, in the islands of the Archipelago,
  - the southern shores of the Black Sea, constituting a combined force of approximately 9,000 troops.

Besides augmentation of 32,000 men by the submission of Bosnia and Northern Albania to the new system; and a further increase of 40,000 men, which Serbia had arranged to furnish, 18,000 men served in Egypt, which would act to reinforce the reserve of the fifth army.

The marines, sailors, and workmen, enrolled in brigades, amounted to 34,000 men. The grand total of armed men at the disposal of Ottoman Empire at the time could be calculated at no less than 664,000 men. In addition, the Ottomans could call-up occasional levies, which were more easily and efficiently utilized in the Ottoman Empire than in any other country at the time.

Police Force

The police force, picketed all over the Empire, equalled a force of approximately 30,000.

needs extension.

Footnote

^ Section based on the article by THE INTERNATIONAL MAGAZINE 1855.