Proto-Indo-European numerals.html |
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Proto-Indo-European numerals have been reconstructed by modern linguists based on similarities found across all Indo-European languages. The following article lists and discusses their hypothesized forms.
Contents |
Cardinal numbers
The cardinal numbers are reconstructed as follows:
| Number | Reconstruction (Sihler)1 | Reconstruction (Beekes)2 |
|---|---|---|
| one | *Hoi-no-/*Hoi-wo-/*Hoi-k(ʷ)o-; *sem- | *Hoi(H)nos |
| two | *d(u)wo- | *duoh₁ |
| three | *trei- (full grade) / *tri- (zero grade) | *treies |
| four | *kʷetwor- (o-grade) / *kʷetur- (zero grade) (see also the kʷetwóres rule) |
*kʷetuōr |
| five | *penkʷe | *penkʷe |
| six | *s(w)eḱs; originally perhaps *weḱs | *(s)uéks |
| seven | *septm̥ | *séptm |
| eight | *oḱtō, *oḱtou or *h₃eḱtō, *h₃eḱtou | *h₃eḱteh₃ |
| nine | *(h₁)newn̥ | *(h₁)néun |
| ten | *deḱm̥(t) | *déḱmt |
| twenty | *wīḱm̥t-; originally perhaps *widḱomt- | *duidḱmti |
| thirty | *trīḱomt-; originally perhaps *tridḱomt- | *trih₂dḱomth₂ |
| forty | *kʷetwr̥̄ḱomt-; originally perhaps *kʷetwr̥dḱomt- | *kʷeturdḱomth₂ |
| fifty | *penkʷēḱomt-; originally perhaps *penkʷedḱomt- | *penkʷedḱomth₂ |
| sixty | *s(w)eḱsḱomt-; originally perhaps *weḱsdḱomt- | *ueksdḱomth₂ |
| seventy | *septm̥̄ḱomt-; originally perhaps *septm̥dḱomt- | *septmdḱomth₂ |
| eighty | *oḱtō(u)ḱomt-; originally perhaps *h₃eḱto(u)dḱomt- | *h₃eḱth₃dḱomth₂ |
| ninety | *(h₁)newn̥̄ḱomt-; originally perhaps *h₁newn̥dḱomt- | *h₁neundḱomth₂ |
| hundred | *ḱm̥tom; originally perhaps *dḱm̥tom | *dḱmtóm |
| thousand | *ǵʰeslo-; *tusdḱomti (originally "a massive number"citation needed) | *ǵʰes-l- |
Other reconstructions typically differ only slightly from Beekes and Sihler (see for example Fortson3).
The elements *-dḱomt- (in the numerals "twenty" to "ninety") and *dḱm̥t- (in "hundred") are reconstructed on the assumption that these numerals are derivatives of *deḱm̥(t) "ten".
Lehmann4 believes that the numbers greater than ten were constructed separately in the dialects groups and that *ḱm̥tóm originally meant "a large number" rather than specifically "one hundred."
Gender of numerals
The numbers three and four had feminine forms with the suffix *-s(o)r-, reconstructed as *t(r)i-sr- and *kʷetwr̥-sr-, respectively.3
Numerals as prefixes
Special forms of the numerals were used as prefixes, usually to form bahuvrihis (like five-fingered in English):
| Number | Prefix (Fortson)3 |
|---|---|
| one- (together, same) | *sm̥- |
| two- | *dwi- |
| three- | *tri- |
| four- | *kʷ(e)tru- or *kʷetwr̥- |
Ordinal numbers
The ordinal numbers are difficult to reconstruct due to their variety in the daughter languages. The following reconstructions are tentative:3
- "first" is formed with *pr̥h₃- (related to some adverbs meaning "forth, forward, front" and to the particle *prō "forth", thus originally meaning "foremost" or similar) plus various suffixes like *-wo-, *-mo-.
- "second": The daughter languages use a wide range of expressions, often unrelated to the word for "two", so that no PIE form can be reconstructed.
- "third" to "sixth" were formed from the cardinals plus the suffix *-t(ó)-: *tr̥-t(ó)- / *tri-t(ó)- "third" etc.
- "seventh" to "tenth" were formed by adding the thematic vowel *-ó- to the cardinal: *oḱtow-ó- "eighth" etc.
The cardinals ending in a syllabic nasal (seven, nine, ten) inserted a second nasal before the thematic vowel, resulting in the suffixes *-mó- and *-nó-. These and the suffix *-t(ó)- spread to neighbouring ordinals, seen for example in Vedic aṣṭamá- "eighth" and Lithuanian deviñtas "ninth".
Reflexes
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This section is missing citations or needs footnotes. Using inline citations helps guard against copyright violations and factual inaccuracies. (October 2008) |
Reflexes of the cardinal numbers
| Number | Reconstruction (Sihler) | Reflexes |
|---|---|---|
| one | *Hoi-no- | Alb. një/nji, Lith. vien-as, vienet-as, Latv. viens, Gaul. oinos, Gm. ein/eins, Eng. ān/one, Gk. oios, Av. aēuua, Ir. óin/aon, Kashmiri akh, Lat. ūnus, Kamviri ev, Osc. uinus, OCS edinŭ, ON einn, OPruss. aīns, Osset. iu/ieu, Pers. aiva/yek, Pol. jeden, Roman. unu, Russ. odin, Skr. eka, Umbr. uns, Goth. ains, Welsh uncitation needed |
| *sem- | Arm. mi/mek/meg, Alb. gjithë, Lith. sa, sav-as, Eng. sum/some, Gm. saman/zusammen, Gk. heis, Hitt. san, Av. hakeret, Ir. samail/samhail, Lat. semel, Lyc. sñta, Kamviri sâ~, Pers. hama/hamin, Russ. sam, Skr. sakṛt, Toch. sas/ṣe, Welsh hafal, ON sami, Goth. samacitation needed | |
| two | *du(w)o- | Luv. tuwi-, Ved. dvā(u), Av. duua, Gk. dúō, Lat. duō, Goth. twai, Welsh dau, Arm. erkow, TochA. wu, Lith. dù, OCS dŭva,3
Hitt. dā-, Lyc. tuwa, Pers. duva/do, Osset. dyuuæ/duuæ, Kashmiri zū', Kamviri dü, Osc. dus, Umbr. tuf, ON tveir, Eng. twā/two, Gm. zwêne/zwei, Gaul. vo, Ir. dá/dó, TochB. wi, OPruss. dwāi, Latv. divi, Pol. dwa, Russ. dva, Alb. dy/dycitation needed |
| three | *trei- | Hitt. teriyaš (gen. pl.), Ved. tráyas, Av. θrāiiō, Gk. treĩs, Lat. trēs, Goth. þreis, Welsh tri, Arm. erek῾, TochA. tre, Lith. trỹs, OCS trije,3
Lyc. trei, Pers. çi/se, Osset. ærtæ/ærtæ, Kashmiri tre, Kamviri tre, Osc. trís, Umbr. trif, ON þrír, Eng. þrēo/three, Gm. drī/drei, Gaul. treis, Ir. treí/trí, TochB. trai, OPruss. tri, Latv. trīs, Pol. trzy, Russ. tri, Alb. tre/tre, Illyrian tri-, Phrygian thri-citation needed |
| four | *kʷetwor- | Ved. catvāras, Av. caθuuārō, Gk. téttares, Lat. quattuor, Goth. fidwor, Welsh pedwar, Arm. čork῾, TochA. śtwar, Lith. keturì, OCS četyre,3
Lyc. teteri, Pers. /čahār, Osset. cyppar/cuppar, Kashmiri tsor, Kamviri što, Osc. petora, Umbr. petor, ON fjórir, Eng. fēower/four, Gm. feor/vier, Gaul. petor, Ir. cethir/ceathair, TochB. śtwer, OPruss. keturjāi, Latv. četri, Pol. cztery, Russ. četyre, Alb. katër/katër, Thracian ketri-citation needed |
| five | *pénkʷe | Ved. pañca, Av. panca, Gk. pénte, Lat. quīnque, Goth. fimf, Welsh pump, Arm. hing, TochA. päñ, Lith. penkì, OCS pętĭ,3
Luwian panta, Pers. panča/panj, Osset. fondz/fondz, Kashmiri pā.~tsh Kamviri puč, Osc. pompe, Umbr. pumpe, ON fimm, Eng. fīf/five, Gm. fimf/fünf, Gaul. pempe, Ir. cóic/cúig, TochB. piś, OPruss. pēnkjāi, Latv. pieci, Pol. pięć, Russ. pjat', Alb. pesë/pesë, Phrygian pinkecitation needed |
| six | *s(w)eḱs | Ved. ṣáṭ, Av. xšuuaš, Gk. héks, Lat. sex, Goth. saíhs, Welsh chwech, Arm. vec῾, TochA. ṣäk, Lith. šešì, OCS šestĭ,3
Pers. /šeš, Osset. æxsæz/æxsæz, Kashmiri śe, Kamviri ṣu, Osc. sehs, Umbr. sehs, ON sex, Eng. siex/six, Gm. sēhs/sechs, Gaul. suex, Ir. sé/sé, TochB. ṣkas, OPruss. usjai, Latv. seši, Pol. sześć, Russ. šest', Alb. gjashtë, Illyrian ses-citation needed |
| seven | *septm̥ | Ved. saptá, Av. hapta, Gk. heptá, Lat. septem, Goth. sibun, Welsh saith, Arm. ewt῾n, TochA. ṣpät, Lith. septynì, OCS sedmĭ,3
Hitt. šipta-, Pers. /haft, Osset. avd/avd, Kashmiri sath, Kamviri sut, Osc. seften, ON sjau, Eng. seofon/seven, Gm. sibun/sieben, OPruss. septīnjai, Gaul. sextan, Ir. secht/seacht, TochB. ṣukt, Latv. septiņi, Pol. siedem, Russ. sem', Alb. shtatë/shtatëcitation needed |
| eight | *h₃eḱtō | Ved. aṣṭā(u), Av. ašta, Gk. oktō, Lat. octō, Goth. ahtau, Welsh wyth, Arm. owt῾, TochA. okät, Lith. aštuonì, OCS osmĭ,3
Lyc. aitãta-, Pers. ašta/hašt, Osset. ast/ast, Kashmiri ā.ṭh, Kamviri uṣṭ, Osc. uhto, ON átta, Eng. eahta/eight, Gm. ahto/acht, Gaul. oxtū, Ir. ocht/ocht, TochB. okt, OPruss. astōnjai, Latv. astoņi, Pol. osiem, Russ. vosem', Alb. tëte/tetëcitation needed |
| nine | *(h₁)newn̥ | Ved. nava, Av. nauua, Gk. enné(w)a, Lat. novem, Goth. niun, Welsh naw, Arm. inn, TochA. ñu, Lith. devynì, OCS devętĭ,3
Lyc. ñuñtãta-, Pers. nava/noh, Kashmiri nav, Kamviri nu, Osc. nuven, Umbr. nuvim, ON níu, Eng. nigon/nine, Gm. niun/neun, Gaul. navan, Ir. nói/naoi, OPruss. newīnjai, Latv. deviņi, Pol. dziewięć, Russ. devjat', Alb. nëntë/nândëcitation needed |
| ten | *deḱm̥(t) | Ved. dáśa, Av. dasa, Gk. déka, Lat. decem, Goth. taíhun, Welsh deg, Arm. tasn, TochA. śäk, Lith. dẽšimt, OCS desętĭ,3
Pers. daθa/dah, Osset. dæs/dæs, Kashmiri da.h, Kamviri duc,Osc. deken, Umbr. desem, ON tíu, Eng. tīen/ten, Gm. zēhen/zehn, Gaul. decam, Ir. deich/deich, TochB. śak, OPruss. desīmtan, Latv. desmit, Pol. dziesięć, Russ. desjat', Alb. dhjetë/dhetë, Dacian dece-citation needed |
| twenty | *wīḱm̥t- | Ved. viṁśatí-, Av. vīsaiti, Doric wíkati, Lat. vīgintī, M. Welsh ugein(t), Arm. k῾san, TochA. wiki,3
Pers. /bēst, Kashmiri vuh, Kamviri vici, Gaul. vocontio, Ir. fiche/fiche, TochB. ikäṃ, Lith. dvi-de-šimt, Alb. njëzet/njizetcitation needed |
| thirty | *trīḱomt- | Skr. triṅśat, Gk. triákonta, Lat. trīgintā, Ir. /tríocha, Lith. tris-de-šimtcitation needed |
| forty | *kʷetwr̥̄ḱomt- | Skr. catvāriṅśat, Gk. tessarákonta, Lat. quadrāgintā, Lith. keturias-de-šimtcitation needed |
| fifty | *penkʷēḱomt- | Skr. pañcāśat, Gk. pentêkonta, Lat. quinquāgintā, Ir. /caoga, Lith. penkias-de-šimtcitation needed |
| sixty | *s(w)eḱsḱomt- | Skr. ṣaṣṭih, Gk. exêkonta, Lat. sexāgintā, Ir. /seasca, Lith. šešias-de-šimt, Russ. šest'desjatcitation needed |
| seventy | *septm̥̄ḱomt- | Skr. saptatih, Gk. heptákonta, Lat. septuāgintā, Ir. /seachtó, Lith. septynias-de-šimt, Russ. sem'desjatcitation needed |
| eighty | *h₃eḱtō(u)ḱomt- | Skr. aśītih, Gk. ogdôkonta, Lat. octāgintā, Ir. /ochtó, Lith. aštuonias-de-šimt, Russ. vosem'desjatcitation needed |
| ninety | *(h₁)newn̥̄ḱomt- | Skr. navatih, Gk. ennenêkonta, Lat. nonāgintā, Ir. /nócha, Lith. devynias-de-šimt, Russ. devjanostocitation needed |
| hundred | *ḱm̥tom | Ved. śatám, Av. satəm, Gk. hekatón, Lat. centum, Goth. hund, Welsh cant, TochA. känt, Lith. šim̃tas, OCS sŭto,3
Pers. /sad, Osset. sædæ, Kashmiri śath, ON hundrað, Eng. hundred/hundred, Gm. hunt/hundert, Gaul. cantam, Ir. cét/céad, TochB. kante, Latv. simts, Pol. sto, Russ. sto/sotnjacitation needed |
| thousand | *(sm̥-)ǵʰéslo- | Skr. sahasram, Av. hazarəm, Pers. /hāzar, Gk. khilioi, Lat. mīlle, Toch. wälts/yaltsecitation needed |
| *tusdḱomti | ON þúsund, Goth. þusundi, Eng. þusend/thousand, Gm. þūsunt/tausend, Toch. tumane/tmām, Lith. tūkst-ant-is, stūks-ant-is, Latv. tūkstots, OCS tysǫšti, Pol. tysiąc, Russ. tysjačacitation needed | |
In the following languages, two reflexes separated by a slash mean:
- English: Old English / Modern English
- German: Old High German / New High German
- Irish: Old Irish / Modern Irish
- Persian: Old Persian / Modern Persian
- Tocharian: Tocharian A / Tocharian B
Reflexes of the feminine numbers
| Number | Reconstruction | Reflexes3 |
|---|---|---|
| three | *t(r)i-sr- | Ved. tisrás, Av. tišrō, Gaul. tidres, Ir. teoir/? |
| four | *kʷetwr̥-sr- | Ved. cátasras, Av. cataŋrō, Ir. cetheoir/? |
Reflexes of the numeral prefixes
| Number | Reconstruction | Reflexes (with examples)3 |
|---|---|---|
| one- (together, same) | *sm̥- | Ved. sa-kŕ̥t "once", Gk. há-ploos "one-fold, simple", Lat. sim-plex "one-fold" |
| two- | *dwi- | Ved. dvi-pád- "two-footed", Gk. dí-pod- "two-footed", Archaic Lat. dui-dent "a sacrifical animal with two teeth" |
| three- | *tri- | Ved. tri-pád- "three-footed", Gk. trí-pod- "three-footed (table)", Lat. tri-ped- "three-footed", Gaul. tri-garanus "having three cranes" |
| four- | *kʷ(e)tru- | Ved. cátuṣ-pád- "four-footed", Av. caθru-gaoša- "four-eared", Gk. tetrá-pod- "four-footed", Lat. quadru-ped- "four-footed" |
Reflexes of the ordinal numbers
| Number | Reconstruction | Reflexes |
|---|---|---|
| first | *pr̥h₃-wó- | Ved. pūrviyá-, OCS prĭvŭ3 |
| *pr̥h₃-mó- | Goth. fruma, Lith. pìrmas3 | |
| other forms | Lat. prīmus, Eng. fyrst/first,3
Hitt. para, Lyc. pri, Av. pairi, vienet-as, paoiriia, Osset. fyccag, farast/farast, Kamviri pürük, Gk. prōtos, Osc. perum, Umbr. pert, Roman. primul, ON fyrstr, Gm. furist/Fürst "prince, ruler"; fruo/früh "early", Ir. er/air, Welsh ar, Toch. parwät/parwe, OPruss. pariy, Latv. pirmais, Pol. pierwszy, Russ. pervyj, Alb. i parëcitation needed |
|
| second | *dwo-teró-citation needed | Skr. dvitīya, Gk. deúteros, Lith. an-tr-as (on third), sekant-is (following, sequent, next), dve-jet-as, dve-jas (double), Russ. vtorojcitation needed |
| third | *tri-tó- | Ved. tr̥tīya-, Gk. trítos, Lat. tertius3
Lith. treč-ias, tret-ias Russ. tretijcitation needed |
| fourth | *kʷetwr̥-tó- | Gk. tétartos, Eng. feorþa/fourth, OCS četvirĭtŭ3
Lat. quartus, Lith. ketvirt-as, Russ. chetvjortyjcitation needed |
| fifth | *penkʷ-tó- | Av. puxδa-, Gk. pémptos3
Lat. quintus, Lith. penkt-as, Russ. pjatyjcitation needed |
| sixth | *sweḱs-tó- | Gk. héktos, Lat. sextus,3
Lith. šešt-as, Russ. šestojcitation needed |
| seventh | *septm̥-(m)ó- | Gk. hébdomos, Lat. septimus, OCS sedmŭ,3
Lith. sep-tint-as, sep-tunt-as, sekm-as, Russ. sed'mojcitation needed |
| eighth | *h₃eḱtōw-ó- | Gk. ógdo(w)os, Lat. octāvus,3
Russ. vos'moj, Lith. aš-tunt-as (me plus seven)citation needed |
| ninth | *(h₁)newn̥-(n)ó- | Lat. nonus,3
Gk. énatos, Russ. devjatyj, Lith. de-vint-as, de-vienet-as (part of one)citation needed |
| tenth | *dekm̥-(m)ó- | Ved. daśamá-, Av. dasəma-, Lat. decimus,3
Gk. dékatos, Lith. dešimtas, Russ. desjatyjcitation needed |
References
- ^ Sihler, Andrew L. (1995). New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin, Oxford University Press. pp. 402–24. ISBN 0-19-508345-8.
- ^ Beekes, Robert S. P. (1995). Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction. pp. 212–16. ISBN 1-55619-505-1.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab Fortson IV, Benjamin W. (2004). Indo-European Language and Culture, Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-4051-0316-7.
- ^ Lehmann, Winfried P. (1993). Theoretical Bases of Indo-European Linguistics. London: Routledge. pp. 252–255. ISBN 0-415-08201-3.
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